J. KRISHNAMURTHY PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

3.4 . Krishnamurti's Philosophy of Education

3.4.1 The Aim of Education

J. Krishnamurti regards education as of prime significance in the

communication of that which is central to the transformation of the human

mind and the creation of a new culture. 'Self-knowledge' is considered to be

the most important aim of education. For He says:

...education should not encourage the individual to conform to

society or to be negatively harmonious with it, but help him to

discover the true values which come with unbiased investigation and

self-awareness. When there is no self-knowledge, self-expression

becomes self-assertion, with all its aggressive and ambitious

Conflicts. Education should awaken the capacity to be self-aware and 137not merely indulge in gratifying self-expression.”

Elsewhere he brings out this idea in a more persuasive manner. As he states:

Self-knowledge alone can bring tranquility and happiness to man,

for self-knowledge the beginning of intelligence and integration.

Intelligence is not mere superficial adjustment; it is not the

cultivation of the mind, the acquisition of knowledge. Intelligence is

the capacity to understand the ways of life, it I the perception of

right values.138

The purpose of education according to Krishnamurti is “not to

produce mere scholars, technicians, and job hunters, but integrated men and

women who are free of fear: for only between such human beings can there

be enduring peace.”139 He was convinced of the fact that conventional

education makes independent thinking extremely difficult. Conformity leads

to mediocrity. To be different from the group or to resist environment is not

easy and is often risky as long as we worship success. The urge to be

successful, which is the pursuit of reward whether in the material or in die

so-called spiritual sphere, the search for inward or outward security, die

desire for comfort-this whole process smothers discontent, puts an end to

spontaneity and breeds fear; and fear blocks the intelligent understanding of life. With increasing age, dullness of mind and heart sets in

3.4.2 The Function of Education

As regards the function of education, Krishnamurti is clear in his vision. He

states:

The function of education is to create human beings who are

integrated and therefore intelligent. We may take degrees and be

mechanically efficient without being intelligent. Intelligence is not mere

information; it is not derived from books, nor does it consist of clever self

defensive responses and aggressive assertion. On who has not studied may

be more intelligent than the learned. We have made examination and degrees

the criterion of intelligence and have developed cunning minds that avoid

vital human issues. Intelligence is die capacity to perceive the essential, the

what is; and to awaken this capacity, in oneself and in others, is

education.”142

In die vision of J. Krishnamurti, education is not merely a matter of

training the mind. For as he says, “training makes for efficiency, but it does

not bring about completeness. A mind that has merely been trained is die

continuation of the past, and such a mind can never discover the new.”

Further he says “What we now call education is a matter of accumulating

information and acknowledge from books, which anyone can do who can

read. Such education offers a subtle form of escape from ourselves and, like

all escapes, it inevitably creates increasing misery. Conflict and confusion

result from our own wrong relationship with people, things and ideas, and

until we understand that relationship and alter it, mere learning, the

gathering of facts and the acquiring of various skills, can only lead us to

engulfing chaos and destruction.”143

j-krishnamurti expresses his dissatisfaction over the deplorable

condition of the present day education. As he states:

Present-day education is a complete failure because it has over

emphasized technique. In over-emphasizing technique we destroy man. To

cultivate capacity and efficiency with understanding life, without having a comprehensive perception of the ways of through and desire, will only make

in increasingly ruthless, which is to engender war and jeopardize our

physical security. The exclusive cultivation of technique has produced

scientists, mathematicians, bridge builders, space conquerors; but do they

understand the total process of life? Can any specialist experience life as a

whole? Only when he ceases to be a specialist.”144

Thus Krislmamurti envisions an education that makes one more

integrated in the society at the same time one has a perception of the reality

as a whole.

3.4.3 Education and Life

Education is not merely acquiring acknowledge, gathering and

correlating facts; it is to see the significance of life as whole.”145 To find out

what is right education, he inquires into the whole significance of living. “To

most of us, the meaning of life as a whole is not of primary importance, and

our education emphasizes secondary values, merely making us proficient in

some branch of knowledge. Though knowledge and efficiency are necessary,

to lay chief emphasis on them only leads to conflict and confusion.”146

To bring about right education, we must obviously understand the

meaning of life as a whole, and for that we have to be able to think, not

consistently, but directly and truly. A consistent thinker is a thoughtless

person, because he conforms to a pattern; he repeats phrases and thinks in a

groove. We cannot understand existence abstractly or theoretically. To

understand life is to understand ourselves and that is both the beginning and

the end of education.147

Now, what is die significance of life? What are we living and

struggling for? If we are being educated merely to achieve distinction, to get

a better job, to be more efficient, to have wider domination over others, then

our lives will be shallow and empty. ‘If we are being educated only to be

scientist, to be scholars wedded to books, or specialists addicted to

knowledge, then we hall be contributing to die destruction and misery of the

world.

We may be highly educated, but if we are without deep integration of

through and feeling, our lives are incomplete, contradictory and tom with

many fears; and as long as education does not cultivate an integrated outlook

on life, it has very little significance.

Education is not merely a matter of training die mind. Training makes

for efficiency, but it does not bring about completeness. A mind that has

merely been trained is die continuation of die past, and such a mind can

never discover the new. That is why, to find out what is right education, we

will have to inquire into the whole significance of living.

“To bring about right education, we must obviously understand die

meaning of life as a whole, and for that we have to be able to think, not

consistently, but directly and truly. A Consistent thinker is a thoughtless

person, because he conforms to a pattern; he repeats phrases and thinks in a

groove. We cannot understand existence abstractly or theoretically. To

understand life is to understand ourselves and that is both die beginning and

the end of education.149

3.4.4 Education and Relationship

In J. Krishnamurti's philosophy of education, great emphasis is laid on

the question of relationship. As he says: “Existence is relationship; and

whether we belong to an organized religion or not, whether we are worldly

or caught up in ideals, our suffering can be resolved only through the

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understanding of ourselves in relationship.”

According to him, the learner must be educated to establish a right

relationship with things, persons and ideas, because thus alone can one be

happy.

3.4.5 The Function and Role of the Teacher

According to Krishnamurti, “a teacher’s function is to explore the

meaning of life with students and for himself. Although be conveys

knowledge, his function is to join with students in learning. When teachers

are really concerned about students as precious beings, when they act with

passion and feeling about their work of transforming minds, they will

influence students differently. When they are consistent, when they actually

do what they say is the thing to do, when their attempt to pursue a holistic

approach to learning is sincere, honest and informed, there will be a new

way of thinking, behaving, acting, dressing and walking among students.

Thus, a teacher’s function is to explore the total realm of education,

not simply to convey subject matter to the student, but to help him explore

life itself. In essence, this constitutes what teaching is - a mutual

exploration, not a mutual reinforcement151 of the activities that they

youngsters would like to be perpetually occupied with, i.e., various forms of

entertainment and indulgence. Learning takes place at the same time for

both teacher and student; it is mutual. Especially during the formative

phases, learning takes place when an example is followed. A teacher is what

a student becomes.

Krishnamurti regarded the art of education as very special. The

teacher, in a sense, has the future of humanity in his hands. It is up to him to

develop the “individual uniqueness” of each child, of which Krishnamurti

had already spoken very early in his life. To live up to this task, die teacher

must know about his own qualities and is then able to fulfill his task with

inner security. “Only when the educator himself feels the dignity and die

respect implicit in his work, will he be aware that teaching is die highest

calling, greater than that of the politicians, greater than the princes of the

world.”153

Krishnamurti regards such self-respect by the teacher so highly because it

grants the teacher an inner independence.15

Education should always be creative, always new, taking into account

die individual child. Krishnamurti disapproved of any form of copying of a

certain method or a formative influence of any kind of ideology. “When one

follows a method, even if it has been worked out by a thoughtful and

intelligent person, the method becomes important, and die children are

important only as they fit into it.”155 This advice is also a reminder for

parents who can make crucial mistakes in the educational sphere if they

make particular demands on their children. Similar to following certain

educational methods, setting goals can imply the erection of insurmountable

barriers to a true education. Comparing the children in a family, reducing

them to die same level and often with the most successful child as the model,

is a dramatic mistake in Krishnamurti’s view. “This comparison is a form of

violence...Imitation is violence.”156 Because the family is only a reflection

of society on a small scale it cannot be changed without realizing and

correcting this elementary mistake. Education must be transformed totally it

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must be revolutionized.

By die later half of the fifties Krishnamurti had expressed this idea in

a programmatic way: “Education today helps only to cultivate memory. We

are turning human beings into memory machines. We are turning out

Mediocre who can retain facts and opinions and draw on them when need

arises. We are turning out men whose minds are conditioned by traditions,

beliefs, religions, etc.”

“It seems to me that real education begins when you get beyond all

such conditioning factors; when you understand die process of blinking.”

“Society is not going to help you in your efforts to get beyond

conditioning factors. Society wants to breed mediocre in order to maintain

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its traditions. You will have to revolt against such society.”

3.4.6 Holistic Approach to Education

Long before the times of ‘holistic thinking,’ Krishnamurti demanded

die holistic approach in his form of education. Only if the individual child is

educated according to the dignity of his or her unique wholeness can the

process encompass his or her true inner being, only then can the inner

wholeness communicate with the outer in complete harmony. In a letter,

dated March 15, 1979, Krishnamurti states this idea in his inimitable

precision.159 “This sensitivity to die fallen leaf and to die tall tree on a hill is

far more important than all the passing of examinations and having a bright

career.”160 The child becoming an integral whole, developing in a holistic

way, would be accompanied by becoming whole and by a healing process

that cannot be accomplished by outer acts. According to Krishnamurti, a

change of society can only evolve from die inner to die outer and for him

education was the key to this change.

DISCRIMINATION IN INDIA

CASTE BASED DISCRIMINATION IN INDIA

The Indian economy is now one of the world’s biggest. Everywhere in the country, there are new roads, new airports, new infrastructure. But in many places, especially in poorer rural areas, caste
infrastructure is still the one that counts. And those who rebel
against it, are often greeted with unchecked brutality. It is
violence intended to send a message, pain inflicted to
maintain India’s old social order. The crimes are happening
across the country and Dalits are not simply killed: They are
humiliated, tortured, disfigured, destroyed. We may talk about India being a world power, a global power, sending satellites into space. “But the outside world has an
image of India we don’t know. As long as Hinduism is strong, caste will be strong, and as long as there is caste, there will be
lower caste,”. Many analysts blame the political parties , whose Hindu
supremacist roots have lead it’s supporters to lash out at
minorities, often in the name of Hinduism, One example is the
rash of people beaten up or killed for slaughtering cows.
India's caste system is perhaps the world's longest surviving
social hierarchy. A defining feature of Hinduism, caste
encompasses a complex ordering of social groups on the basis
of ritual purity. A person is considered a member of the caste
into which he or she is born and remains within that caste until
death, although the particular ranking of that caste may vary
among regions and over time. Differences in status are
traditionally justified by the religious doctrine of karma, a
belief that one's place in life is determined by one's deeds in
previous lifetimes. Traditional scholarship has described this more than
2,000-year-old system within the context of the four principal
varnas, or large caste categories. In order of precedence these
are the Brahmins (priests and teachers), the KSyatriyas (rulers
and soldiers), the Vaisyas (merchants and traders), and the
Shudras (laborers and artisans). A fifth category falls outside
the varna system and consists of those known as
"untouchables" or Dalits; they are often assigned tasks too
ritually polluting to merit inclusion within the traditional varna
system.7 Almost identical structures are also visible in Nepal.8
Despite its constitutional abolition in 1950, the practice of "Untouchability"-the imposition of social disabilities on
persons by reason of birth into a particular caste- remains very
much a part of rural India. Representing over one-sixth of
India's population-or some 160 million people-Dalits endure
near complete social ostracization. "Untouchables" may not
cross the line dividing their part of the village from that
occupied by higher castes. They may not use the same wells, visit the same temples, or drink from the same cups in tea
stalls. Dalit children are frequently made to sit at the back of
classrooms. In what has been called India's "hidden
apartheid," entire villages in many Indian states remain
completely segregated by caste. "Untouchability" is reinforced by state allocation of resources
and facilities; separate facilities are provided for separate
caste-based neighborhoods. Dalits often receive the poorer of
the two, if they receive any at all. In many villages, the state
administration installs electricity, sanitation facilities, and
water pumps in the upper-caste section, but neglects to do
the same in the neighboring, segregated Dalit area. Basic
amenities such as water taps and wells are also segregated, and medical facilities and the better, thatched-roof houses
exist exclusively in the upper-caste colony. discrimination in the society, especially in rural areas, is still in
existence. So-called untouchables cannot even enter the
houses of the people of so-called higher and middle-class
castes. On one hand, they are socially suppressed by the upper
classes and, on the other hand, they suffer from poverty; the
intensity of poverty seems to be higher in socially backward
people. Most Dalits in India also continue to live in extreme poverty, without land or opportunities for better employment or
education. With the exception of a minority who have
benefited from India's policy of quotas in education and
government jobs, Dalits are relegated to the most menial of
tasks as removers of human waste and dead animals, leather
workers, street sweepers, and cobblers. According to
government statistics, an estimated one million Dalits in India
are "manual scavengers" (a majority of them women) who
clear feces from public and private latrines and dispose of
dead animals; unofficial estimates are much higher. Dalit
children make up the majority of children sold into bondage
to pay off debts to upper-caste creditors. Lower-caste women are singularly positioned at the bottom of
caste, class, and gender hierarchies. Largely uneducated and
consistently paid less than their male counterparts worldwide
they invariably bear the brunt of exploitation, discrimination, and physical attacks. Sexual abuse and other forms of violence
against women are often used by landlords. For decades, India has struggled to de-weaponize caste. When
the Constitution was being written in the late 1940s, intellectuals knew caste was a sore spot that needed to be
urgently addressed.
In 2016The crime rate against dalits rose to 20.3% from 16.3
crimes per 100,000 dalits in 2006 according to National Crime
Records Bureau data. Meanwhile the crime rte against AADIVASI or ST’s declined
from 6.9% in 2006 to 6.3 % in 2016. However, cases pending police investigation for both
marginalized groups has risen by 99% and 55% respectively.
CASES
1. A group of upper caste men surrounded A DALIT family of
four SUREKHA, 17 year old daughter PRIYANKA, and two sons
ROSHAN and SUDHIR, and were dragged out , the women
were stripped beaten and paraded through the village, and
the men were beaten so badly that their faces disfigured. All
four DIED. Their crime was- they had objected to their land
being used as a throughway by upper caste farmer. 2. a 14-year-old Dalit girl was beheaded by an upper-caste
man whose wife said he hated the girl specifically because of
her caste. 3. a Dalit man was killed by higher-caste men for riding a
horse (traditionally, Dalits aren’t supposed to do that). 4. .A 13-year-old boy, from a Dalit community in Gujarat, was
beaten for wearing a pair of leather shoe
5. two men from a Dalit community were killed by
upper-caste Hindus for sitting cross-legged in front of them
during a temple ritual. 6. Pregnant Woman Killed For Touching Bucket Of
Upper-Caste Man
7. Madhukar 48, was killed by 12 upper-caste men for
digging a well on his land, which was surrounded by lands
owned by them. Discrimination is the form of difference created on the basis of
social, economic and political standing. There are different
forms of discrimination based on, gender, class, religion, ethnicity etc.
We as Teacher plays an important role in shaping
the society, and working at an individual level
Discrimination can be prevented from our society if
we as teachers follow the following steps:
(i) Teaching concept of love and peace from primary level of
education. (ii) Teaching how to respect everyone. (iii) Teach how to lead a life in a dignified manner. (iv) Integration among the communities, classes etc. (v) Discrimination declared as a crime. (vi) Say the words and practice the behavior you want children
to imitate. As teachers, we have a huge influence on students
and their views.

ORIGIN & HISTORY of COMMERCE

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF COMMERCE 

(IN RESPECT TO INDIA AND WORLD)

Exchange of goods or services for money or in kind, usually on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across city, state, or national boundaries.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/commerce.html

Exchange of goods or services for money or in kind, usually on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across city, state, or national boundaries.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/commerce.html

Exchange of goods or services for money or in kind, usually on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across city, state, or national boundaries.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/commerce.html

Exchange of goods or services for money or in kind, usually on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across city, state, or national boundaries.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/commerce.html

Exchange of goods or services for money or in kind, usually on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across city, state, or national boundaries.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/commerce.html

Exchange of goods or services for money or in kind, usually on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across city, state, or national boundaries.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/commerce.html

Commerce has evolved over the centuries from a simple trade of goods or services for other goods or services to the complex buying, selling, and trading that occurs online every day. In fact, eCommerce greatly changed commerce, allowing people to show whenever they want and making international orders much easier. Commerce has greatly changed over the centuries, and now it's a major part of all countries. But how did today's concept of commerce come from? Let's take a look at what commerce is, its history, and what types of commerce we engage in today.

What is Commerce?

Commerce is defined  as the exchange of money for goods or services. While it's true that "commerce" can be applied to any transaction, most of the time when people think of commerce, they think of large-scale buying or selling. These transactions often require products to be transported from place to place or even from country to country. Commerce involves politics, economics, technology, culture, society, and the legal system. Another way of defining commerce is that it is the part of business that includes all institutions, functions, and activities that involve moving goods to consumers from producers.

Commerce is a part of all countries and communities. Any time one person trades something they've found or made for something else, commerce is occurring on a very small level. When done properly, commerce can help improve the standards of living for a country's citizens and improve its relations with other countries. When it's not regulated, big businesses can gain control of the market, manipulating it for their own benefit and driving smaller businesses into bankruptcy.

'Exchange of goods and services for money or in kind, on a scale large enough to require transportation from place to place or across the city or state or national boundaries.'

'Commerce is the conduct of trade among economic agents. Generally, commerce refers to the exchange of goods, services or something of value, between businesses or entities. From a broad perspective, nations are concerned with managing commerce in a way that enhances the well-being of citizens, by providing jobs and producing beneficial goods and services.'

"Commerce is an organized system for the exchange of goods between the different parts of world."

Origin Of Commerce :-

"COMMERCE is derived from the Latin word COMMERCIUM , from COM- together and MERX(merce)- MERCHANDISE."

 

The history of commerce is history of civilization. In his barbarous state man's wants are few and simple limited to his physical existence such as food clothing and shelter , but as he advances in the scale of intelligence his wants increases and he require not only comfort and conveniences but also the luxuries. Civilized man is never satisfied for no sooner is the want supplied than other arises in it's place and under that stimulus he achieves mighty conquests over the force of nature and attain to a high degree of development in character.        Commerce is one of the means by which various people have at different times have undertaken to supply their needs.

No civilized community produce all the things which it consumes. A portion of needs must be supplied by an interchange of products with other communities or nation and this is the beginning of commerce either domestic or foreign.

moreover it may be impossible for a nation to produce all that it needs to consume physical peculiarities of the country, it's lack of cotton or rice in abundance.

 

The Phoenicians.
The first navigators and carriers of goods by water, of which we read, were the Phoenicians who inhabited the narrow strip of coast land along the east of the Mediterranean Sea. Having a large sea frontage with little interior distance, these people were naturally attracted to seafaring occupations. Their coast abounded in good harbors, and their abundant forests supplied the materials for ship building, while agriculture was difficult on account of the hilly and rocky nature of the land. Here we see the natural conditions exactly reversed from those of Egypt, with the effect of developing a nation of navigators and traders instead of farmers, as in Egypt. The enterprise and activity of the Phoenicians were wonderful. They founded the cities of Tyre and Sidon and built up a large and profitable system of commerce. Intellectual activity and diligence in business led these people to many discoveries, among which were the making of glass, the art of dyeing purple and writing by means of letters. They are said to have rounded the Cape of Good Hope on voyages to India about the year B. C. 600.

History Of Commerce :-

 Commerce had it's beginning when the first humans started trading goods, but it wasn't until money was introduced that what we think of commerce really began. Global commerce as it is known today had it's beginning in the 16th century when the large trading companies were formed in UK, Spain. Portugal and The Netherlands. These empires freely traded with each other, and explorers met other civilization in ASIA and AFRICA , their trde route expended and connected to the trade routes already in place in those countries.

By 20th century expended from small shops and outdoor markets to supermarket. Sailing ships were replaced by steam ships , then by railroads and finally by planes and large cargo vessels. With these changes commerce went from slow process that could take weeks to a process that could take a several hours.

The creation of organization like WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION  was to help control commerce and promote free trade and remove any barriers to trade.
The evolution of commerce and commercial activities can be studied under the following stages.
a. Family Economy Stage. b. Hunting and Fishing Stage
c. Pastoral Stage
d. Agricultural Stage
e. Barter Economy Stage
f. Money Economy Stage
g. Town Economy Stage
h. International Trade Stage
a. Family Economy Stage:
This was the stage of self-sufficiency. At this stage the members of a family used to divide work among them and tried to live as an independent unit. The procurement of food was meant for the consumption of entire family.
b. Hunting and Fishing Stage:
This was the stage where men spent their time in hunting and fishing for food while the women kept themselves busy in gathering fruits and distributing the food among all the family members. The food procured was only to the extent required for the family members.
c. Pastoral Stage:
At this stage the members of the family started domesticating animals for the food requirements of the family for a prolonged period. Men used to move from place to place in search of food and shelter. They used to cloth themselves with grass, leaves and animal skins.
d. Agricultural Stage:
Man developed the art of cultivation of land and started living in a fixed place. Men built houses and started cultivating land. This marked the beginning of the growth of collective living which led to the emergence of communities and villages.
The true form of commercial activities started from this stage where people started producing more than their families required and the surplus produce was exchanged which led to the Barter System. The foundation for modern commerce was laid down during this stage.
e. Barter Economy Stage:
Barter System involves exchange of goods and services for other goods and services. This marked the beginning of the true form of business activities. The barter economy laid foundation for increase in the other commercial activities like trading, division of labour, employment of slaves to get the work done etc.
The barter economy however, had its own drawbacks which led to the discontinuance of the exchange system. The drawbacks were: Absence of double co-incidence of wants: It became difficult for any one person with surplus produce to come across another person who could exchange the produce for the suitable requirement of both of them.
(i) E.g. a Barber’s service may not be required by farmer growing rice, while the Barber may need rice for his sustenance, for which he could not offer any other suitable product to the farmer in return.
(ii) Lack of common measure of value:
It was not possible to fix common values of measures for products or service to be exchanged in an equitable manner which was fair enough to both the parties concerned.
(iii)Lack of storage facilities:
The surplus production had to be stored in order to act as a source of exchange in future. This was not possible without loss in the value of the products stored, due to lack of proper storage facilities.
(Iv) Lack of sub-division:
Certain items could not be sub-divided to the required quantity to be exchanged with various other products to satisfy the variety of wants of individuals. E.g. A cow or a buffalo could not be divided by the milkman for rice, wheat and sugar required by him.
Money Economy Stage:
The drawbacks of the Barter Economy led to the emergence of the introduction of money as a common medium of exchange and settlement of transactions. At first, animal skins, furs, shells etc. were used as money and later metal was used as a medium of exchange. Still later various metals were converted into coins of definite size and weight.
Town Economy Stage:
The development of a common medium of exchange led to the increase in the trading activities. Specialized activities were carried on by groups of individuals on a locality basis. This led to the growth of towns and cities. Trade began between traders of different towns and cities.
International Trade Stage:
The traders could not only trade within the boundaries of their countries but also beyond. With the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope route by Vasco Da Gama, discovery of America, and cir-cum navigation by Magellan goods were now produced to be sold in foreign markets. Specialized institutions like banks, transport organizations, insurance agencies, and warehouses helped in the development of international as well as domestic trade.

History Of Commerce in India :-

 Commerce has been in practice since time immemorial. It is part and parcel of human life, whether it is a king or a common man. It emerged as an economic activity mainly as barter system, which means exchange of goods for goods.

In absence of medium of exchange in form of money today. The growth of civilization witnessed the rise and fall of many dynasties but still the course of commerce activities continued further and further not only within a country but also between nations of the world.

 However Tamil Nadu remained as to be the founder of trade and commerce both within and outside as evidenced in various ancient literature like SANGAM.

The earliest trading population of India was Indus Valley Civilization, who used the word 'trade'. The early Tamils produced their products and goods in their lands and bartered their surplus and that is how trade come into existence.

 The Tamil BRAHMI inscriptions from Alagar Malai Pugalur, Mangulum and Sri-Lanka illustrate the fact that trade in gold, oil , plough, cloth etc. was conducted during the early age . Trade was one of the major mean of linking various regions in the medieval period. There was dependence and interdependence among the people in matter of trade and commerce. Barter system cemented their relationship internally while coin were used later for the purpose of exchange of goods in external trade.

• Among the merchant classes, some specialized in wholesale trade, and others in the retail trade. The wholesale traders were known as ‘seth’ or ‘bohra’ and the retail traders were known as ‘beoparis’ or ‘banik.’
• In south India, the community ‘chettis’ formed the trading class. Besides, there was a special class, ‘banjaras,’ who specialized in the trading.
• The banjaras used to move from one place to another place, sometimes with thousands of oxen, laden with food grains, salt, ghee, and other daily use stuff.
• The ‘sarrafs’ (shroff) are specialized in changing money, keeping money in deposit or lending it, or transmitting it from one part of the country to the other by means of ‘hundi.’
• The ‘hundi’ was a letter of credit payable after a certain period. The use of hundis made it easier to move goods or to transmit money from one part of the country to another.
• When needed, the hundis were cashed at a discount rate, which sometimes included insurance so that the cost of goods lost or destroyed in transit could be recovered. Taking the advantage of these facilities, the Indian merchants could easily ship goods to countries of West Asia as well where there were Indian banking houses.
• English and Dutch traders who came to India during the seventeenth century found that the Indian financial system was highly developed, and the Indian merchants were very active and alert.
• The trading community of medieval time in India was considerably large in number and included some of the richest merchants of the world. For example, Virji Vohra had a large fleet of ships and he dominated Surat trade for several decades; Malaya Chetti dominated the Coromandel Coast; Abdul Ghaffoor Bohra was much popular trader who left 85 lakhs of rupees in cash and goods at the time of his death in 1718.
• Merchants and traders lived in lofty houses with colored tiles, wore fine clothes, and had people carrying flags and banners before them when they moved out in public.
• The French traveler, Bernier, however, written: “the merchants tried to look poor because they were afraid that they might be squeezed of their wealth.”
• Bernier’s observation might be wrong because the emperors right from the time of Sher Shah passed many laws to protect the property of the merchants.
• The laws made (for the traders) by Sher Shah were very strict. Secondly, Mughal Emperor Jahangir made a provision that “if anyone, whether nonbeliever or Musalman should die, his property and other belongings should be left for his heirs, and no one should interfere with them.”
• In a case where the respective (rich) person had no heir, an inspector should be appointed and also there would be separate guardians to guard the property, so that its value might be expended in a lawful and social expenditure, such as the building of mosques and sarais, repair of broken bridges, and the digging of tanks and wells.”

Organization of Trade & Commerce

• The Mughals paid attention to roads and sarais, which made communication easier. A uniform tax was levied on goods at the point of their entry into the empire. Rahdari (a transit duty, a toll) or Road ceases was declared illegal, though it continued to be collected by some of the local rajas (kings).
• The Mughals introduced silver rupees of high purity, which became a standard coin in India and abroad and that helped in the growth of India’s trade as well.
• Mughals also made the policies that helped the commercialization of the economy and the growth of a money economy.
• During the Mughals period, salaries of the standing army as well as many of the administrative personnel (excluding the nobles) were paid in cash. Besides, under the zabti system, the land revenue was assessed and required to be paid in cash.
• The growth of the rural grain markets led to the rise of small townships (or qasbas). The demand for all types of luxury goods by the nobles led to the expansion of handicraft production as well as the growth of towns.
• Ralph Fitch, who came India during the Akbar’s reign said that Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were each larger than London.
• Monserrate said that Lahore was second to none of the cities in Europe or Asia. Bernier says that Delhi was not much less than Paris and that Agra was larger than Delhi.
• Ahmadabad was also a large town, being as large as London and its suburbs. Dacca, Rajmahal, Multan, and Burhanpur were large towns, while Patna in Bihar had a population of 2 lakhs.

Role of European Trading Companies

• In the beginning of seventeenth century, the arrival of Dutch and English traders also helped in the growth of India’s trade.
• The Indian traders welcomed the foreign traders and they helped to break the Portuguese monopoly of sea trade, and in a course of time, helped to establish a direct link between India and the European markets.
• Over a period of time, like the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English traders were also intended to establish a monopoly and made fortified establishments so that they could confront the local rulers.
• The Portuguese power had begun to decline during the second half of the sixteenth century, as was demonstrated by the defeat of the Spanish Armada by England in 1588.
• Despite a vehement opposition by the Portuguese, in 1606, the Dutch established themselves at Machilipatnam after obtaining a farman from the ruler of Golconda. They also established themselves in the Spice-Islands (Java and Sumatra); likewise, by 1610, they predominated in the spice trade.
• The cloth produced on the Coromandel Coast was the most popular and also cheapest to carry. Hence, Dutch increased their trade to south from Machilipatnam to the Coromandel Coast. They made Pulicat as their base station after taking it from the local ruler.
• Like the Dutch, the English also had come to the coast for the spice trade, but the hostility of the Dutch created a hindrance.
• In 1612, after defeating a Portuguese fleet out-side Surat, the English were able to set up a factory (in Surat), for which permission finally was taken by Thomas Roe in 1618 from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
• The Dutch followed the English and soon established a factory at Surat as well.
• Export of textiles was the base of India’s foreign trade. As an English writer observed, “From Aden to Achin (in Malaya) from head to foot, everyone was clothed in Indian textiles.”
• In 1622, with the help of the Persian forces, the English captured Ormuz, the Portuguese base at the head of the Persian Gulf.
• By the first quarter of the seventeenth century, both the Dutch and the English were well set in the Indian trade, and the Portuguese monopoly was broken forever.
• The Portuguese restricted to Goa and Daman and Diu only; likewise, their share in India’s overseas trade declined continuously and was almost insignificant by the end of the century.
• By 1640, export of cloth from the Coromandel equated with that of Gujarat; and by 1660, it was three times that of Gujarat. Machilipatnam and Fort St. David, which later developed into Madras were the chief centers of the trade.
• Another item which became popular was the export of Saltpeter (chemical name Potassium nitrate), which supplemented the Europeans, as it was used in making gun-powder and was also used as a ballast for ships going to Europe.
• The best quality Saltpeter was found in Bihar; therefore, exports from these areas grew rapidly; surprisingly, by the end of the century, this trade became equal (in value) to the exports from the Coromandel.
• The Indian textiles became a rage in England by the last quarter of the seventeenth century. An English observer wrote, “Almost everything that used to be made of wool or silk, relating either to dress of the women or the furniture of our houses was supplied by the Indian trade.”
• The increasing import from India, put down the local European market; as a result of which, in 1701, an agitation had been seen in Europe. Subsequently, all calicoes painted, dyed, printed, or stained from Persia, China, or the East Indies (i.e. India) were banned. But the agitation and subsequent strict laws could not change the trade pattern effectively.
• India was more closely linked to the world markets, especially to the European markets where a commercial revolution was taking place. But this linkage had negative factors as well. Europe had little to supply to India in return for its goods.